Chemistry Fundamentals - Chemical Concepts & Terminology

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Isotope

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General Chemistry

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons, and thus different mass numbers.

Isotope

Pronunciation

EYE-suh-tohp

What you'll learn

Define essential chemical terms accurately.
Understand fundamental chemical reactions.
Identify periodic table elements quickly.
Grasp basic molecular structures.

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General Chemistry · 57

Isotope/ EYE-suh-tohp /: Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons, and thus different mass numbers.
Atom/ AT-uhm /: The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical identity of that element.
Molecule/ MOL-uh-kyool /: A group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
Element/ EL-uh-muhnt /: A pure substance consisting only of atoms that all have the same numbers of protons in their atomic nuclei.
Compound/ KOM-pownd /: A substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together.
Mixture/ MIKS-chur /: A substance containing two or more substances that are not chemically bonded together.
Proton/ PROH-ton /: A subatomic particle with a positive electric charge, found in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron/ NOO-tron /: A subatomic particle with no net electric charge, found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron/ ih-LEK-tron /: A stable subatomic particle with a negative electric charge, found in orbitals around the nucleus of an atom.
Nucleus/ NOO-klee-uhs /: The central part of an atom, containing protons and neutrons.
Ion/ EYE-on /: An atom or molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net electric charge.
Cation/ KAT-eye-on /: A positively charged ion.
Anion/ AN-eye-on /: A negatively charged ion.
Ionic Bond/ eye-ON-ik bond /: A chemical bond formed between two ions with opposite charges, typically through the transfer of electrons.
Covalent Bond/ koh-VAY-luhnt bond /: A chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Metallic Bond/ muh-TAL-ik bond /: A type of chemical bond that arises from the electrostatic attractive force between conduction electrons and positively charged metal ions.
Chemical Reaction/ KEM-i-kuhl ree-AK-shuhn /: A process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance, as opposed to a change in physical form or a nuclear reaction.
Reactant/ ree-AK-tuhnt /: A substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a reaction.
Product/ PROD-uhkt /: A substance that is formed as the result of a chemical reaction.
Catalyst/ KAT-uh-list /: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change.
Acid/ AS-id /: A substance that donates protons (H+) or accepts electrons in a chemical reaction.
Base/ BAYS /: A substance that accepts protons (H+) or donates electrons in a chemical reaction.
pH/ pee-AYCH /: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, on a scale where 7 is neutral, lower values are more acidic, and higher values are more alkaline.
Neutralization/ noo-truh-li-ZAY-shuhn /: A chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react quantitatively with each other to form a salt and water.
Oxidation/ ok-si-DAY-shuhn /: The loss of electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion during a chemical reaction.
Reduction/ ri-DUK-shuhn /: The gain of electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion during a chemical reaction.
Redox Reaction/ REE-doks ree-AK-shuhn /: A chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed; involves both reduction and oxidation processes.
Molar Mass/ MOH-lur mas /: The mass of one mole of a substance, usually expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).
Mole/ MOHL /: The SI unit for amount of substance, defined as the amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12.
Avogadro's Number/ av-uh-GAH-drohz NUM-bur /: The number of constituent particles (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.) per mole of a substance, approximately 6.022 x 10^23 mol^-1.
Stoichiometry/ stoy-kee-OM-i-tree /: The calculation of relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
Limiting Reactant/ LIM-i-ting ree-AK-tuhnt /: The reactant in a chemical reaction that is completely consumed, thereby limiting the amount of product that can be formed.
Solution/ suh-LOO-shuhn /: A homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances.
Solute/ SOL-yoot /: The substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a solution.
Solvent/ SOL-vuhnt /: The substance in which a solute is dissolved to form a solution.
Concentration/ kon-suhn-TRAY-shuhn /: A measure of the amount of solute in a given amount of solvent or solution.
Molarity/ moh-LAR-i-tee /: A measure of the concentration of a solute in a solution, expressed as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).
Chemical Equilibrium/ KEM-i-kuhl ee-kwuh-LIB-ree-uhm /: A state in which the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
Le Chatelier's Principle/ luh sha-tuh-LEE-ayz PRIN-suh-pul /: States that if a change of condition (e.g., temperature, pressure, concentration) is applied to a system in equilibrium, the system will shift in a direction that relieves the stress.
Periodic Table/ peer-ee-OD-ik TAY-buhl /: A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.
Group (Periodic Table)/ GROOP /: A column of elements in the periodic table, sharing similar chemical properties.
Period (Periodic Table)/ PEER-ee-uhd /: A row of elements in the periodic table, where elements have the same number of electron shells.
Valence Electrons/ VAY-luhns ih-LEK-tronz /: Electrons in the outermost shell of an atom, which are involved in forming chemical bonds.
Octet Rule/ ok-TET ROOL /: The tendency of atoms to prefer to have eight electrons in their valence shell, achieving a stable electron configuration.
Amphoteric/ am-fuh-TER-ik /: A substance that can react as both an acid and a base.
Crystallization/ kris-tuh-li-ZAY-shuhn /: The process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal.
Distillation/ dis-tuh-LAY-shuhn /: A process of separating the components or substances from a liquid mixture by selective boiling and condensation.
Electronegativity/ ih-lek-troh-neg-uh-TIV-i-tee /: A measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons.
Intermolecular Forces (IMFs)/ in-tur-MOL-uh-kyoo-lur FOR-sez /: Attractive forces that exist between molecules.
Hydrogen Bond/ HY-druh-juhn BOND /: A weak type of intermolecular force that forms a special type of dipole-dipole attraction between a hydrogen atom bonded to a highly electronegative atom (like N, O, or F) and another electronegative atom.
Bond Energy/ BOND EN-ur-jee /: The amount of energy required to break one mole of a particular type of bond in the gaseous state.
Hybridization/ hy-bri-dy-ZAY-shuhn /: The concept of mixing atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals suitable for the pairing of electrons to form chemical bonds.
Covalent Network Solid/ koh-VAY-luhnt NET-wurk SOL-id /: A chemical compound in which the atoms are bonded by covalent bonds in a continuous network extending throughout the material.
Amorphous Solid/ uh-MOR-fuhs SOL-id /: A solid in which the atoms or molecules are not organized in a definite crystal lattice.
VSEPR Theory/ VES-pur THEE-uh-ree /: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory, used to predict the geometry of individual molecules from the number of electron pairs around their central atoms.
Polar Molecule/ POH-lur MOL-uh-kyool /: A molecule that has a net dipole moment due to the uneven sharing of electrons in its covalent bonds, resulting in partial positive and negative charges.
Nonpolar Molecule/ non-POH-lur MOL-uh-kyool /: A molecule in which the electrons are shared equally between the atoms, or where the bond dipoles cancel each other out due to molecular symmetry.

Organic Chemistry · 28

Alkane/ AL-kayn /: A saturated hydrocarbon containing only single carbon-carbon bonds.
Alkene/ AL-keen /: An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
Hydrocarbon/ hy-droh-KAR-buhn /: An organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Alkyne/ AL-kyn /: An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
Aromatic Compound/ air-uh-MAT-ik KOM-pownd /: An organic compound containing a benzene ring or other ring systems with delocalized pi electrons, exhibiting special stability.
Functional Group/ FUNK-shuh-nuhl GROOP /: A specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of that molecule.
Alcohol/ AL-kuh-hawl /: An organic compound containing a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group bonded to a saturated carbon atom.
Carboxylic Acid/ kar-bok-SIL-ik AS-id /: An organic compound containing a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group.
Ester/ ES-tur /: An organic compound derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol, characterized by the -COO- functional group.
Amine/ uh-MEEN /: An organic compound derived from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with organic groups.
Isomer/ EYE-suh-mur /: Molecules that have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms in space.
Stereoisomer/ steer-ee-oh-EYE-suh-mur /: Isomers that have the same connectivity of atoms but differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms.
Chirality/ ky-RAL-i-tee /: A property of a molecule that is non-superimposable on its mirror image.
Polymer/ POL-i-mur /: A large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated smaller units (monomers) linked together.
Monomer/ MON-uh-mur /: A molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
Substitution Reaction/ sub-stuh-TOO-shuhn ree-AK-shuhn /: A chemical reaction in which one functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another functional group.
Addition Reaction/ uh-DISH-uhn ree-AK-shuhn /: A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to form a larger one, typically involving the breaking of a pi bond.
Elimination Reaction/ ih-lim-uh-NAY-shuhn ree-AK-shuhn /: A type of organic reaction in which two substituents are removed from a molecule, often resulting in the formation of a double or triple bond.
Nomenclature (IUPAC)/ noh-muhn-KLAY-chur (EYE-yoo-pak) /: A systematic method of naming chemical compounds, established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Resonance/ REZ-uh-nans /: A way of describing delocalized electrons within certain molecules or polyatomic ions where the bonding cannot be expressed by a single Lewis structure.
Delocalization/ dee-loh-kuh-ly-ZAY-shuhn /: The spreading of electron density over a larger volume than would be predicted by localized bonds.
Stereocenter (Chiral Center)/ steer-ee-oh-SEN-tur (KY-ruhl SEN-tur) /: An atom, typically carbon, that is bonded to four different groups, leading to chirality.
Enantiomer/ uh-NAN-tee-oh-mur /: Stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other.
Diastereomer/ dy-uh-STEER-ee-oh-mur /: Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other.
Conformation/ kon-for-MAY-shuhn /: The spatial arrangement of atoms in a molecule that can be changed by rotation about single bonds.
Electrophile/ ih-LEK-troh-fyl /: An electron-deficient species that is attracted to electron-rich centers and accepts an electron pair to form a new bond.
Nucleophile/ NOO-klee-oh-fyl /: An electron-rich species that is attracted to electron-deficient centers and donates an electron pair to form a new bond.
Grignard Reagent/ GRIN-yard REE-juhnt /: An organometallic chemical reagent composed of an alkyl or aryl-magnesium halide, widely used in organic synthesis to form new carbon-carbon bonds.

Physical Chemistry · 29

Energy/ EN-ur-jee /: The capacity to do work or produce heat.
Enthalpy/ EN-thal-pee /: A thermodynamic property of a system, representing the total heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Entropy/ EN-truh-pee /: A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
Gibbs Free Energy/ GIBZ free EN-ur-jee /: A thermodynamic potential that measures the 'useful' or process-initiating work obtainable from an isothermal, isobaric thermodynamic system.
Activation Energy/ ak-tuh-VAY-shuhn EN-ur-jee /: The minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
Reaction Rate/ ree-AK-shuhn RAYT /: The speed at which a chemical reaction proceeds, typically measured by the change in concentration of reactants or products over time.
Quantum Mechanics/ KWON-tuhm muh-KAN-iks /: The branch of physics that deals with the behavior of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic scale.
Orbital/ OR-bi-tuhl /: A mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom, defining a region where the electron is most likely to be found.
Quantum Number/ KWON-tuhm NUM-bur /: A value that describes the properties of electrons in atomic orbitals, such as energy level, shape, and orientation.
Thermodynamics/ thur-moh-dy-NAM-iks /: The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of energy and work.
Kinetics/ ki-NET-iks /: The branch of chemistry concerned with the rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them.
Rate Law/ RAYT LAW /: An equation that expresses the rate of a chemical reaction in terms of the concentrations of the reactants.
Phase Transition/ FAYZ tran-ZISH-uhn /: A physical process in which a substance changes from one state of matter (solid, liquid, gas, plasma) to another.
Ideal Gas Law/ eye-DEE-uhl GAS LAW /: An equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, PV=nRT, where P is pressure, V is volume, n is moles, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is temperature.
Colligative Properties/ kuh-LIG-uh-tiv PROP-ur-teez /: Properties of solutions that depend on the ratio of the number of solute particles to the number of solvent particles, not on the identity of the solute.
Electrochemistry/ ih-lek-troh-KEM-i-stree /: The branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical changes produced by electric current and the production of electric current by chemical reactions.
Electrode/ ih-LEK-trohd /: An electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit, such as an electrolyte.
Electrolysis/ ih-lek-TROL-uh-sis /: The chemical decomposition of a substance by an electric current.
Galvanic Cell (Voltaic Cell)/ gal-VAN-ik SEL (vol-TAY-ik SEL) /: An electrochemical cell that derives electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions taking place within the cell.
Van der Waals Forces/ van dur WAHLZ FOR-sez /: Weak, short-range attractive forces between uncharged atoms or molecules, including dispersion forces and dipole-dipole forces.
Vapor Pressure/ VAY-pur PRESH-ur /: The pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system.
Boiling Point/ BOYL-ing POYNT /: The temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals the external atmospheric pressure, causing the liquid to change into a gas.
Melting Point/ MEL-ting POYNT /: The temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid.
Sublimation/ sub-li-MAY-shuhn /: The phase transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas state, without passing through the liquid state.
Heat Capacity/ HEET kuh-PAS-i-tee /: The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by a specific amount.
Specific Heat/ spi-SIF-ik HEET /: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
Hess's Law/ HES-iz LAW /: States that the total enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is the same, regardless of the pathway taken, as long as the initial and final conditions are the same.
Spectroscopy/ spek-TROS-kuh-pee /: The study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation.
Chromophore/ KROH-muh-for /: The part of a molecule responsible for its color, due to its ability to absorb certain wavelengths of light.

Inorganic Chemistry · 10

Coordination Compound/ koh-or-duh-NAY-shuhn KOM-pownd /: A compound that consists of a central metal atom or ion that is bonded to a surrounding array of molecules or ions, called ligands.
Ligand/ LIG-uhnd /: An ion or molecule that binds to a central metal atom to form a coordination complex.
Transition Metals/ tran-ZISH-uhn MET-uhlz /: Elements in the d-block of the periodic table, known for forming colored compounds and having multiple oxidation states.
Oxidation State/ ok-si-DAY-shuhn STAYT /: The degree of oxidation (loss of electrons) of an atom in a chemical compound.
Brønsted-Lowry Acid/ BRON-sted LOW-ree AS-id /: A species that donates a proton (H+) in a chemical reaction.
Brønsted-Lowry Base/ BRON-sted LOW-ree BAYS /: A species that accepts a proton (H+) in a chemical reaction.
Lewis Acid/ LOO-is AS-id /: An electron-pair acceptor.
Lewis Base/ LOO-is BAYS /: An electron-pair donor.
Allotrope/ AL-uh-trohp /: Different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state.
Lattice Energy/ LAT-is EN-ur-jee /: The energy released when one mole of an ionic compound is formed from its gaseous ions.

Biochemistry · 25

Protein/ PROH-teen /: Large complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body, made up of amino acid chains.
Amino Acid/ uh-MEE-noh AS-id /: Organic compounds that contain both amino (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, serving as the building blocks of proteins.
Peptide Bond/ PEP-tyd BOND /: A chemical bond formed between two amino acid molecules, linking the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another.
Carbohydrate/ kar-boh-HY-drayt /: Biomolecules consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, typically with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); includes sugars, starch, and cellulose.
Monosaccharide/ mon-oh-SAK-uh-ryd /: The simplest form of carbohydrate; a single sugar unit that cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler carbohydrates.
Polysaccharide/ pol-ee-SAK-uh-ryd /: A complex carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharide units linked together.
Lipid/ LIP-id /: A diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents; includes fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.
Fatty Acid/ FAT-ee AS-id /: A carboxylic acid with a long aliphatic chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated; a primary component of lipids.
Triglyceride/ try-GLIS-uh-ryd /: An ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids; the main constituent of natural fats and oils.
Nucleic Acid/ noo-KLEE-ik AS-id /: Complex organic substances present in living cells, especially DNA and RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)/ dee-ok-see-ry-boh-noo-KLEE-ik AS-id (dee-en-AY) /: A self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)/ ry-boh-noo-KLEE-ik AS-id (ar-en-AY) /: A polymeric molecule essential in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes.
Nucleotide/ NOO-klee-oh-tyd /: The basic structural unit of nucleic acids, consisting of a nucleobase (a nitrogenous base), a five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and one to three phosphate groups.
Enzyme/ EN-zym /: A protein that acts as a biological catalyst, speeding up specific biochemical reactions without being consumed in the process.
Active Site/ AK-tiv SYT /: The specific region of an enzyme where a substrate binds and catalysis takes place.
Substrate/ SUB-strayt /: The molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
Metabolism/ muh-TAB-uh-liz-uhm /: The sum of all chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)/ ay-tee-PEE (uh-DEN-uh-seen try-FOS-fayt) /: The main energy currency of the cell, used to power various cellular processes.
pH Buffer/ pee-AYCH BUF-ur /: A solution that resists changes in pH upon the addition of small amounts of acid or base.
Fermentation/ fur-men-TAY-shuhn /: A metabolic process that produces chemical changes in organic substrates through the action of enzymes.
Photosynthesis/ foh-toh-SIN-thuh-sis /: The process used by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria to convert light energy into chemical energy, in the form of sugars.
Cellular Respiration/ SEL-yoo-lur res-puh-RAY-shuhn /: A set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
Oxidative Phosphorylation/ ok-si-DAY-tiv fos-for-uh-LAY-shuhn /: The metabolic pathway in which cells use enzymes to oxidize nutrients, thereby releasing energy which is used to reform ATP.
Glycolysis/ gly-KOL-uh-sis /: The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, with the net production of two ATP molecules.
Metabolite/ muh-TAB-uh-lyt /: Any substance produced or used during metabolism.

Analytical Chemistry · 5

Titration/ ty-TRAY-shuhn /: A quantitative chemical analysis method used to determine the concentration of an identified analyte.
Chromatography/ kroh-muh-TOG-ruh-fee /: A laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture, based on the differential partitioning between a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
Spectrophotometry/ spek-troh-fuh-TOM-uh-tree /: A method to measure how much a chemical substance absorbs light by measuring the intensity of light as a beam of light passes through sample solution.
Qualitative Analysis/ KWOL-i-tay-tiv AN-uh-li-sis /: The branch of analytical chemistry that deals with the identification of elements or compounds present in a sample.
Quantitative Analysis/ KWON-ti-tay-tiv AN-uh-li-sis /: The branch of analytical chemistry that deals with the determination of the amount or quantity of components in a sample.

Chemistry Fundamentals - Chemical Concepts & Terminology

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